# Phonemes

- [IPA Charts](#ipa-charts)
  - [Consonants (Pulmonic)](#consonants-pulmonic)
  - [Consonants (Non-Pulmonic)](#consonants-non-pulmonic)
  - [Other Symbols](#other-symbols)
  - [Vowels](#vowels)
- [Features](#features)
  - [Phoneme Type](#phoneme-type)
  - [Consonants](#consonants)
    - [Voicing](#voicing)
    - [Place of Articulation](#place-of-articulation)
      - [Co-articulation](#co-articulation)
    - [Manner of Articulation](#manner-of-articulation)
  - [Vowels](#vowels-1)
    - [Height](#height)
    - [Backness](#backness)
    - [Rounding](#rounding)
  - [Diacritics](#diacritics)
  - [Suprasegmentals](#suprasegmentals)
  - [Unused](#unused)
- [References](#references)

----------

Evan Kirshenbaum created an ASCII transcription of the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA)<sup>\[<a href="#ref1">1</a>\], \[<a href="#ref2">2</a>\]</sup>.
As well as using ASCII characters for specific IPA phonemes, this transcription
provides a set of 3-letter feature abbreviations allowing a phoneme to be
described as a sequence of features.

This document describes the IPA phonemes using the features used by Kirshenbaum.
Where Kirshenbaum does not specify a feature name, the feature name from
Cainteoir Text-to-Speech<sup>\[<a href="#ref5">5</a>\]</sup> is used. This is
to provide a consistent naming scheme for the extended feature set.

This document is grouped into two sections. The first section displays the IPA
charts using the feature names instead of their names, showing the IPA phoneme
at that position in the chart. This makes it easier to look up the features for
a given IPA phoneme.

The second section lists the features and their associated name. This section
does not describe what these mean. Their meaning is described in phonetics
articles, books and Wikipedia. The Wikipedia IPA<sup>\[<a href="#ref4">4</a>\]</sup>
article can be used as a starting point, as it links to topics and descriptions
of the various phonemes.

## IPA Charts

## Consonants (Pulmonic)

<table>
  <tr>
    <td></td>
    <th colspan="2"><code>blb</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>lbd</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>dnt</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>alv</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>pla</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>rfx</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>pal</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>vel</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>uvl</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>phr</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>glt</code></th>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>nas</code></th>
    <td> </td><td>m</td>
    <td> </td><td>ɱ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>n</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ɳ</td>
    <td> </td><td>ɲ</td>
    <td> </td><td>ŋ</td>
    <td> </td><td>ɴ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>stp</code></th>
    <td>p</td><td>b</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td>t</td><td>d</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td>ʈ</td><td>ɖ</td>
    <td>c</td><td>ɟ</td>
    <td>k</td><td>ɡ</td>
    <td>q</td><td>ɢ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td>ʔ</td><td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>frc</code></th>
    <td>ɸ</td><td>β</td>
    <td>f</td><td>v</td>
    <td>θ</td><td>ð</td>
    <td>s</td><td>z</td>
    <td>ʃ</td><td>ʒ</td>
    <td>ʂ</td><td>ʐ</td>
    <td>ç</td><td>ʝ</td>
    <td>x</td><td>ɣ</td>
    <td>χ</td><td>ʁ</td>
    <td>ħ</td><td>ʕ</td>
    <td>h</td><td>ɦ</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>apr</code></th>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ʋ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ɹ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ɻ</td>
    <td> </td><td>j</td>
    <td> </td><td>ɰ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>flp</code></th>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ⱱ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ɾ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ɽ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>trl</code></th>
    <td> </td><td>ʙ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>r</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ʀ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>lat</code>&#xA0;<code>frc</code></th>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td>ɬ</td><td>ɮ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>lat</code>&#xA0;<code>apr</code></th>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>l</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ɭ</td>
    <td> </td><td>ʎ</td>
    <td> </td><td>ʟ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
  </tr>
</table>

Symbols to the left are `vls`, and to the right are `vcd`.

### Consonants (Non-Pulmonic)

<table>
  <tr>
    <td></td>
    <th><code>blb</code></th>
    <th><code>lbd</code></th>
    <th><code>dnt</code></th>
    <th><code>alv</code></th>
    <th><code>pla</code></th>
    <th><code>rfx</code></th>
    <th><code>pal</code></th>
    <th><code>vel</code></th>
    <th><code>uvl</code></th>
    <th><code>phr</code></th>
    <th><code>glt</code></th>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>clk</code></th>
    <td>ʘ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>ǀ</td>
    <td>ǃ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>ǂ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>lat</code>&#xA0;<code>clk</code></th>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>ǁ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>vcd</code>&#xA0;<code>imp</code></th>
    <td>ɓ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>ɗ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>ʄ</td>
    <td>ɠ</td>
    <td>ʛ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>ejc</code></th>
    <td>pʼ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>tʼ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>ʈʼ</td>
    <td>cʼ</td>
    <td>kʼ</td>
    <td>qʼ</td>
    <td>ʡʼ</td>
    <td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>ejc</code>&#xA0;<code>frc</code></th>
    <td>fʼ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>θʼ</td>
    <td>sʼ</td>
    <td>ʃʼ</td>
    <td>ʂʼ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>xʼ</td>
    <td>χʼ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>lat</code>&#xA0;<code>ejc</code>&#xA0;<code>frc</code></th>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td>ɬʼ</td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
    <td> </td>
  </tr>
</table>

### Other Symbols

| Symbol | Features                |
|--------|-------------------------|
| ʍ      | `vls` `lbv` `apr`       |
| w      | `vcd` `lbv` `apr`       |
| ɥ      | `vcd` `lbp` `apr`       |
| ʜ      | `vls` `epg` `frc`       |
| ʢ      | `vcd` `epg` `frc`       |
| ʡ      | `vls` `epg` `stp`       |
| ɕ      | `vls` `alp` `frc`       |
| ʑ      | `vcd` `alp` `frc`       |
| ɺ      | `vcd` `alv` `lat` `flp` |
| ɧ      | `vls` `vzd` `pla` `frc` |

### Vowels

<table>
  <tr>
    <td></td>
    <th colspan="2"><code>fnt</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>cnt</code></th>
    <th colspan="2"><code>bck</code></th>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>hgh</code></th>
    <td>i</td><td>y</td>
    <td>ɨ</td><td>ʉ</td>
    <td>ɯ</td><td>u</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>smh</code></th>
    <td>ɪ</td><td>ʏ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td>ʊ</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>umd</code></th>
    <td>e</td><td>ø</td>
    <td>ɘ</td><td>ɵ</td>
    <td>ɤ</td><td>o</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>mid</code></th>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td>ə</td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>lmd</code></th>
    <td>ɛ</td><td>œ</td>
    <td>ɜ</td><td>ɞ</td>
    <td>ʌ</td><td>ɔ</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>sml</code></th>
    <td>æ</td><td> </td>
    <td>ɐ</td><td> </td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <th align="right"><code>low</code></th>
    <td>a</td><td>ɶ</td>
    <td> </td><td> </td>
    <td>ɑ</td><td>ɒ</td>
  </tr>
</table>

Symbols to the left are `unr`, and to the right are `rnd`.

__NOTE:__ The `smh` vowels are more `cnt` than the other vowels. However, this
distinction is not needed to classify these vowels, so is not included in the
above table.

## Features

### Phoneme Type

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|---------|-------------|-----------------|
| `vwl`   | `vwl`       | vowel           |

### Consonants

#### Voicing

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|---------|-------------|-----------------|
| `vcd`   | `vcd`       | voiced          |
| `vls`   | `vls`       | voiceless       |

#### Place of Articulation

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|---------|-------------|-----------------|
| `blb`   | `blb`       | bilabial        |
| `lbd`   | `lbd`       | labio-dental    |
| `dnt`   | `dnt`       | dental          |
| `alv`   | `alv`       | alveolar        |
| `pla`   | `pla`       | post-alveolar (palato-alveolar) |
| `rfx`   | `rfx`       | retroflex       |
| `alp`   |             | alveolo-palatal |
| `pal`   | `pal`       | palatal         |
| `vel`   | `vel`       | velar           |
| `uvl`   | `uvl`       | uvular          |
| `phr`   | `phr`       | pharyngeal      |
| `epg`   |             | epiglottal      |
| `glt`   | `glt`       | glottal         |

##### Co-articulation

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|---------|-------------|-----------------|
| `lbv`   | `lbv`       | labial-velar    |
| `lbp`   |             | labial-palatal  |

#### Manner of Articulation

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|---------|-------------|-----------------|
| `stp`   | `stp`       | plosive (stop)  |
| `nas`   | `nas`       | nasal           |
| `trl`   | `trl`       | trill           |
| `flp`   | `flp`       | tap/flap        |
| `frc`   | `frc`       | fricative       |
| `apr`   | `apr`       | approximant     |
| `lat`   | `lat`       | lateral         |
| `clk`   | `clk`       | click           |
| `ejc`   | `ejc`       | ejective        |
| `imp`   | `imp`       | implosive       |

### Vowels

#### Height

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name                   |
|---------|-------------|------------------------|
| `hgh`   | `hgh`       | close (high)           |
| `smh`   | `smh`       | near-close (semi-high) |
| `umd`   | `umd`       | close-mid (upper-mid)  |
| `mid`   | `mid`       | mid                    |
| `lmd`   | `lmd`       | open-mid (lower-mid)   |
| `sml`   |             | near-open (semi-low)   |
| `low`   | `low`       | open (low)             |

#### Backness

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|---------|-------------|-----------------|
| `fnt`   | `fnt`       | front           |
| `cnt`   | `cnt`       | center          |
| `bck`   | `bck`       | back            |

#### Rounding

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|---------|-------------|-----------------|
| `unr`   | `unr`       | unrounded       |
| `rnd`   | `rnd`       | rounded         |

### Diacritics

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|---------|-------------|-----------------|
| `asp`   | `asp`       | aspirated       |
| `unx`   | `unx`       | unexploded      |
| `syl`   | `syl`       | syllabic        |
| `mrm`   | `mrm`       | murmured        |
| `vzd`   | `vzd`       | velarized       |
| `lzd`   | `lzd`       | labialized      |
| `pzd`   | `pzd`       | palatalized     |
| `rzd`   | `rzd`       | rhoticized      |
| `nzd`   | `nzd`       | nasalized       |
| `fzd`   | `fzd`       | pharyngealized  |

### Suprasegmentals

| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|---------|-------------|-----------------|
| `lng`   | `lng`       | long            |

### Unused

These feature abbreviations specified by Evan Kirshenbaum in Appendix A of his
ASCII/IPA transcription are not used in that specification.

| Feature   | Kirshenbaum | Name            |
|-----------|-------------|-----------------|
|           | `orl`       | oral            |
|           | `ctl`       | central         |

## References

1. <a name="ref1"></a> Kirshenbaum, Evan,
   [http://www.kirshenbaum.net/IPA/faq.html](Representing IPA phonetics in ASCII) (HTML). 1993.

2. <a name="ref2"></a> Kirshenbaum, Evan,
   [http://www.kirshenbaum.net/IPA/ascii-ipa.pdf](Representing IPA phonetics in ASCII) (PDF). 2001.

3. <a name="ref3"></a> International Phonetic Association,
   [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/ipa-chart](The International Phonetic Alphabet and the IPA Chart). 2015.
   Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA).

4. <a name="ref4"></a> Wikipedia.
   [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet](International Phonetic Alphabet). 2017.
   Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA).

5. <a name="ref5"></a> Dunn, R. H.,
   [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/rhdunn/cainteoir-engine/master/src/libcainteoir/phoneme/phoneme.cpp](Cainteoir Text-to-Speech Phoneme Features). 2013-2015.