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@@ -6,10 +6,14 @@ |
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- [Other Symbols](#other-symbols) |
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- [Vowels](#vowels) |
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- [Features](#features) |
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- [Air Flow](#air-flow) |
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- [Initiator](#initiator) |
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- [Phonation](#phonation) |
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- [Place of Articulation](#place-of-articulation) |
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- [Active Articulators](#active-articulators) |
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- [Passive Articulators](#passive-articulators) |
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- [Consonants](#consonants) |
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- [Voicing](#voicing) |
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- [Place of Articulation](#place-of-articulation) |
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- [Co-articulation](#co-articulation) |
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- [Co-articulation](#co-articulation) |
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- [Manner of Articulation](#manner-of-articulation) |
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- [Vowels](#vowels-1) |
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- [Height](#height) |
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@@ -19,7 +23,7 @@ |
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- [Syllabicity](#syllabicity) |
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- [Consonant Release](#consonant-release) |
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- [Gemination](#gemination) |
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- [Phonation](#phonation) |
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- [Fortis and Lenis](#fortis-and-lenis) |
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- [Articulation](#articulation) |
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- [Co-articulation](#co-articulation-1) |
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- [Precomposed Characters](#precomposed-characters) |
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@@ -242,7 +246,7 @@ sections. |
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</tr> |
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</table> |
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Symbols to the left are `vls`, and to the right are `vcd`. |
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Symbols to the left have a `vls` phonation, and to the right have `mdv` phonation. |
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### Consonants (Non-Pulmonic) |
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@@ -290,7 +294,7 @@ Symbols to the left are `vls`, and to the right are `vcd`. |
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<td> </td> |
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</tr> |
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<tr> |
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<th align="right"><code>vcd</code> <code>imp</code></th> |
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<th align="right"><code>mdv</code> <code>imp</code></th> |
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<td>ɓ</td> |
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<td> </td> |
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<td> </td> |
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@@ -352,8 +356,8 @@ Symbols to the left are `vls`, and to the right are `vcd`. |
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| Symbol | Features | |
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|--------|-------------------------| |
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| ʍ | `vls` `lbv` `apr` | |
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| w | `vcd` `lbv` `apr` | |
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| ɥ | `vcd` `lbp` `apr` | |
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| w | `mdv` `lbv` `apr` | |
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| ɥ | `mdv` `lbp` `apr` | |
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| ɧ | `vls` `vzd` `pla` `frc` | |
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### Vowels |
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@@ -417,36 +421,105 @@ above table. |
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## Features |
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### Consonants |
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### Air Flow |
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#### Voicing |
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| Feature | Symbol | Name | Description | |
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|---------|--------|------------|--------------------------------------------------------| |
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| `egs` | ↑ | egressive | The air flow is moving outwards from the initiator. | |
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| `igs` | ↓ | ingressive | The air flow is moving inwards towards the initiator. | |
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| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name | |
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|---------|-------------|-----------------| |
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| `vcd` | `vcd` | voiced | |
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| `vls` | `vls` | voiceless | |
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The ↑ and ↓ symbols are from the extended IPA<sup>\[<a href="#ref7">7</a>\]</sup>. |
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They only need to be used when the air flow is different to the base IPA |
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phoneme (e.g. using ↓ on pulmonic consonants). |
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#### Place of Articulation |
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### Initiator |
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| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name | |
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|---------|-------------|-----------------| |
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| `blb` | `blb` | bilabial | |
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| `lbd` | `lbd` | labio-dental | |
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| `dnt` | `dnt` | dental | |
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| `alv` | `alv` | alveolar | |
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| `pla` | `pla` | post-alveolar (palato-alveolar) | |
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| `rfx` | `rfx` | retroflex | |
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| `alp` | | alveolo-palatal | |
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| `pal` | `pal` | palatal | |
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| `vel` | `vel` | velar | |
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| `uvl` | `uvl` | uvular | |
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| `phr` | `phr` | pharyngeal/epiglottal | |
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| `glt` | `glt` | glottal | |
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| Feature | Name | Description | |
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|---------|------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------| |
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| `pmc` | pulmonic | The diaphragm and lungs are used to generate the airstream. | |
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| `gtc` | glottalic | The glottis is used to generate the airstream. | |
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| `vlc` | velaric | The velum is closed and the tongue is used to generate the airstream. | |
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| `pcv` | percussive | There is no airstream used to produce this sound. | |
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#### Phonation |
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The phonation features describe the degree to which the glottis (vocal chords) are open or closed. |
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| Feature | Symbol | Name | Description | |
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|---------|--------|-----------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------| |
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| `vls` | | voiceless | The glottis is fully open, such that the vocal chords do not vibrate. | |
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| `brv` | ◌̤ | breathy voice | The glottis is closed slightly, to produce a whispered or murmured sound. | |
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| `slv` | ◌̥ | slack voice | The glottis is opened wider than `mdv`, but not enough to be `brv`. | |
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| `mdv` | | modal voice | The glottis is opened to provide the optimal vibration of the vocal chords. | |
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| `stv` | ◌̬ | stiff voice | The glottis is closed narrower than `mdv`, but not enough to be `crv`. | |
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| `crv` | ◌̰ | creaky voice | The glottis is closed to produce a vocal or glottal fry. | |
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| `glc` | ʔ͡◌ | glottal closure | The glottis is fully closed. | |
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The IPA ◌̥ diacritic is also used to fill the `vls` spaces in the IPA consonant |
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charts. Thus, when ◌̥ is used with a `mdv` consonant that does not have an |
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equivalent `vls` consonant, the resulting consonant is `vls`, not `slv`. |
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### Place of Articulation |
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The place of articulation is described in terms of an active articulator and |
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one or more passive articulators<sup>\[<a href="#ref9">9</a>\]</sup>. The |
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possible places of articulation are: |
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| Place of Articulation | Feature | Symbol | Active | Passive | |
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|-----------------------|-----------|--------|--------|---------| |
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| bilabial | `blb` | | `lbl` | `ulp` | |
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| labiodental | `lbd` | ◌̪ | `lbl` | `utt` | |
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| dental | `dnt` | ◌̪ | `apc` | `utt` | |
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| alveolar | `alv` | | `apc` | `alf` | |
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| palato-alveolar | `pla` | | `lmn` | `alb` | |
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| retroflex | `rfx` | | `sac` | `hpl` | |
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| alveolo-palatal | `alp` | | `dsl` | `alb` | |
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| palatal | `pal` | | `dsl` | `hpl` | |
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| velar | `vel` | | `dsl` | `spl` | |
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| uvular | `uvl` | | `dsl` | `uvu` | |
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| pharyngeal | `phr` | | `rdl` | `prx` | |
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| glottal | `glt` | | `lyx` | `gts` | |
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The features for these places of articulation are provided for convenience, and |
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to make it easier to describe the IPA consonants. Internally, the active and |
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passive articulators are used. |
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The ◌̪ diacritic is `lbd` when used on `blb` consonants, and `dnt` when used on |
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`alv` consonants. |
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__NOTE:__ The IPA charts make a distinction between pharyngeal and epiglottal |
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consonants, but Wikipedia does not. This model uses the Wikipedia descriptions. |
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##### Co-articulation |
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#### Active Articulators |
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| Feature | Name | Articulator | |
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|---------|-----------|-------------------------| |
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| `lbl` | labial | lower lip | |
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| `lmn` | laminal | tongue blade | |
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| `apc` | apical | tongue tip | |
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| `sac` | subapical | underside of the tongue | |
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| `dsl` | dorsal | tongue body | |
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| `rdl` | radical | tongue root | |
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| `lyx` | laryngeal | larynx | |
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#### Passive Articulators |
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| Feature | Articulator | |
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|---------|------------------------| |
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| `ulp` | upper lip | |
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| `utt` | upper teeth | |
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| `alf` | alveolar ridge (front) | |
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| `alb` | alveolar ridge (back) | |
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| `hpl` | hard palate | |
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| `spl` | soft palate | |
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| `uvu` | uvular | |
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| `prx` | pharynx | |
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| `egs` | epiglottis | |
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| `gts` | glottis | |
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### Consonants |
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#### Co-articulation |
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| Feature | Kirshenbaum | Name | |
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|---------|-------------|-----------------| |
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@@ -544,23 +617,13 @@ with the first phoneme using the `unx` feature. For example, n̚.n for a |
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geminated n. This describes how with the `stp` and `nas` consonants, the |
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mouth remains closed (`unx`) for the first of the geminated consonants. |
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#### Phonation |
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#### Fortis and Lenis |
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| Feature | Kirshenbaum | IPA | Name | |
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|---------|-------------|-----|-----------------| |
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| `brv` | | ◌̤ | breathy voiced | |
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| `crv` | | ◌̰ | creaky voiced | |
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| `fts` | | ◌͈ | fortis | |
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| `lns` | | ◌͉ | lenis | |
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The IPA ◌̬ and ◌̥ diacritics (*voiced* and *voiceless*) are used for both |
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filling spaces in the IPA consonants chart and making the distinction |
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between *fortis* and *lenis* consonants. Cainteoir Text-to-Speech uses `slv` |
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(slack voice) and `stv` (stiff voice) for these diacritics. For eSpeak NG, |
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these diacritics are only used for controlling their voiced/voiceless |
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property (and thus their position on the IPA code chart), so `vls` and `vcd` |
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are used for these diacritics. |
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The extended IPA<sup>\[<a href="#ref7">7</a>\]</sup> ◌͈ and ◌͉ diacritics |
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are used to specify lesser (`lns`) and greater (`fts`) oral pressure than |
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the unmodified voiced or voiceless phoneme. This distinction is made by |
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@@ -574,7 +637,6 @@ the [length](#length) suprasegmentals are used instead. |
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| Feature | Kirshenbaum | IPA | Name | |
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|---------|-------------|-----|-----------------| |
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| `dzd` | | ◌̪ | dental | |
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| `apc` | | ◌̺ | apical | |
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| `lmn` | | ◌̻ | laminal | |
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| `lgl` | | ◌̼ | linguolabial | |
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@@ -623,7 +685,7 @@ character. |
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| Symbol | Features | |
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|--------|-------------------------------| |
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| ɫ | `vcd` `fzd` `alv` `lat` `apr` | |
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| ɫ | `mdv` `fzd` `alv` `lat` `apr` | |
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| ɚ | `unr` `mid` `cnt` `rzd` `vwl` | |
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| ɝ | `unr` `lmd` `cnt` `rzd` `vwl` | |
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@@ -691,7 +753,7 @@ Appendix A of his ASCII/IPA transcription, but are not used in the rest of |
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the specification. |
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__NOTE:__ Evan Kirshenbaum transcribes ɦ as `h<?>` (`{mrm,glt,frc}`), while |
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Wikipedia also lists this as a `{vcd,glt,frc}`<sup>\[<a href="#ref6">6</a>\]</sup>. |
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Wikipedia also lists this as a `{mdv,glt,frc}`<sup>\[<a href="#ref6">6</a>\]</sup>. |
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This is the only phoneme that Kirshenbaum uses the `mrm` feature for. As such, |
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the `mrm` feature is not used within this document. |
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@@ -725,3 +787,7 @@ the `mrm` feature is not used within this document. |
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8. <a name="ref8"></a> Wikipedia. |
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[Fortis and lenis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis). 2017, |
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Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA). |
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9. <a name="ref9"></a> Wikipedia. |
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[Place of articulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_of_articulation). 2017, |
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Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA). |
Valdis Vitolins
8 years ago